Wednesday, March 14, 2018

#SoilMatters: Spring Rootflush always precedes Budswell

Photo credit: M. Suderman

Benton City, WA -
Soil temperatures have risen 4-6°F in the past week. This has signaled these Chelan cherry buds to swell. This is an early ripening variety. Which means the number of days a farmer has to grow and nurture the crop are limited. This means every day counts from bloom until harvest and are critical to develop the fruit in preparation of harvest. For instance, an early variety may have 70-80 days from Full Bloom (pollination) until harvest. A week of cooler than normal weather or delayed nutrient application, reduces the growing response window by 10%; a limiting factor, if you will. All early crops are vulnerable to the uncertain eastern Washington weather conditions; this can include cold temperatures, rain, hail, frost, etc. all of which can limit the amount AND quality of harvestable fruit to ship to stores.

Soil fertility applications can begin based on the plant development stage. Roots are foraging just like a grizzly bear awakening from hibernation...hungry, thirsty and ready the ‘grow’. A reminder that roots always grow two to three weeks ahead of budswell activity.

Last fall, many orchards were not fertilized as usual due to a late harvest (~3 weeks) and an early snow. All efforts were focused on getting fruit picked and into the packing house or C.A. storage. Basically, Postharvest fertility was cancelled and trees went into dormancy ‘hungry’. It’s like going to bed without supper. Dormant plants’ sole energy (food) source is stored carbohydrates. These are built via photosynthesis in the previous growing season. The photosynthates needed for the upcoming crop are above the energy requirements of the current crop and stored until needed. When trees are overly stressed during the growing season, it has a direct effect on the current crop quality AND next crop’s potential too.

If this happened in your orchard(s), you likely have a plant-energy deficit going into the bloom stage. An energy deficit at bloom can reduce the viability of blossoms, limit pollination activity, cause premature abortions, etc. Regardless of the cause, it costs on the bottom line of profitability. Trees are well aware of the “available energy” stored for use and self-regulate accordingly. This can be a major limiting factor in setting a crop versus a really good crop.

With a well planned fertility program in place, you can produce tonnage without sacrificing quality. In Neoteric Agriculture, utilizing “plant-ready” nutrients delivers a higher level of use efficiency for a more positive crop response.

Monday, June 12, 2017

#SoilMatters - Organic Acids: Foliar Feeding and Plant Benefits



Photo credit - M. Suderman


Organic Acids: Foliar Feeding and Plant Benefits



In 1947, Dr. William Albrecht wrote, “To be well fed is to be healthy.” This was as true then as it is today. For crops to be healthy, requires energy and nutrients, but crops can be no better (nutritionally) than the nutrient-template supplied them during the growing season. The supply depends on how available nutrient sources are for plant and crop use. Available means “plant-ready” or immediately ready for use. Applying “plant-ready” forms of nutrition helps your crop to be well fed.

 
 
One way to feed your crop well, is by increasing the uptake efficiency of foliar nutrient applications. Uptake efficiency refers to the velocity of nutrient translocation from “source” to “sink”. A rapid plant and crop response is needed, at key stages of growth, to avoid crop and monetary losses. A foliar application that merely coats the canopy and isn’t absorbed is not efficient. Unless needed nutrients get into the plant and then into the fruit (sink), nutrient needs go unmet and complete benefit isn’t achieved. During the growing season, timing is a critical factor in crop development. For example, applying the right nutrition, at the right time, yields the right response, but the right nutrition applied late reduces the benefit or doesn’t help at all. Application timing is driven by temperature and nutrient availability (or unavailability) limits the efficiency of the growth process. Therefore a foliar spray application, with “plant-ready” nutrients, at the right timing, is a good option to ensure proper crop response.
 
 
Organic acids (O.A.) are not new to agriculture. In fact, they have been used for multiple decades because of the benefits they provide. While Humic acid (HA) and Fulvic Acid (FA) are classified as O.A., there are many more O.A. forms that are useful to growers; i.e. lactic, citric, gluconic, malic, etc. In Neoteric Agriculture, these are referred to as True Organic Acids (TOA), because of their high purity levels. Higher purity equals higher efficiency or “bio-availability”. TOA efficiency is due to their low molecular weight (small size). This makes them very effective natural chelators for more efficient nutrient translocation and growth response into plant and fruit tissue. Because TOA are in a “plant-ready” form, when combined with foliar nutrients, like calcium, magnesium, zinc, boron, etc., become “bio-available” as well. True Organic Acids also contain carbon rings, in their composition. Carbon buffers phytotoxicity risks in foliar nutrient applications and supplies a concentrated food (carbon-energy) source for plants and microbiology. On a pound for pound basis, True Organic Acids provide 2.25x more energy than sucrose.

Every stage of crop development is important and demands energy. This energy could come from stored carbohydrate reserves, foliar nutrient sprays, fertigations, etc. But, regardless of the source, if the energy runs short (energy deficit), it becomes the limiting factor to yield potential. All development stages are temperature driven; warmer temperatures speed stages up and cooler temperatures slow stages down. This makes early season nutrient decisions very time sensitive. Using “plant-ready” nutrient sources allows you to meet those nutrient demands in a timely manner more successfully and lessen the risks of energy deficiencies.
 
 
Foliar feeding is a proven way to supplement nutrition, especially when soil conditions cannot meet the demands of the plant development. For example, calcium is vital for good development, but in its elemental form it can’t supply plant energy unless combined with a carbon source like TOA. Calcium chloride (CaCl2) is a widely used and accepted calcium foliar-feeding source. It is water-soluble and proven effective, but the chloride must be factored into application rates to avoid plant tissue damage. When combined with TOA, the CaCl2 compound is split and the O.A. bond with both the calcium and chloride ions. This makes “bio-available” calcium as calcium lactate, -citrate or -gluconate and the chloride is carbon-buffered reducing phytotoxicity risk. Additionally foliar calcium is difficult to get absorbed into fruit versus leaves, as leaves are a much stronger calcium “sink” than fruit. This is why multiple foliar applications are needed, with fruit-surface contact through the growing season, for best efficacy. By incorporating a TOA, with your calcium foliar sprays, complete nutrient absorption is rapid for better plant health and fruit quality.

Plant leaves are an additional limiting factor to efficient plant uptake. You 
Cross Section of Leaf - P. Wojcik
know that foliar nutrient absorption rates are higher in young leaves versus old leaves. As leaves mature, a waxy cuticle develops, that layer serves to protect the plant. It helps to regulate evapotranspiration (ET) rates but also limits the amount of nutrient ion penetration. In many cases, the amount of epicuticular wax is greater with higher levels of environmental stress. This varies by species, but regardless, the waxy protective coating limits efficient foliar-nutrient uptake. Foliar nutrients combined with TOA are able to permeate the mature leaf cuticle because of their “bio-available” form and small molecular size. Their size is small enough to be absorbed through the ectodesmata (plant pores) for a positive plant growth response. The ectodesmata are located on surface of leaves. The pore size is less than 1nm. These are much smaller than stomata and serve a different purpose. Because TOA are smaller than 1nm, this makes them an ideal nutrient chelator for higher absorption rates by plants and fruit. Synthetic chelating agents (EDTA, DTPA, EDDHA, etc.), are much larger molecules (higher molecular weight) and therefore not readily permeable into plant ectodesmata (pores), thus limiting nutrient uptake efficacy.
 
 
Ninety-five percent of plant mass is carbon, hydrogen and oxygen based
material (roots, wood, leaves, buds, fruit, etc.) and merely 5% is from other nutrients (fertilizer applications). Therefore nutrient focus should be on growing the healthiest canopy possible to take advantage of every daylight hour. Nutrient deficiencies limit photosynthetic efficiency and therefore plant and crop health. That’s lost opportunity. Applying foliar nutrients in “plant-ready” and “bio-available” forms supplements the crop when soil nutrient release is limited and supplies a rapid absorption response in order to maintain maximum yield potential. Both quantity and quality are a reality, when you foliar apply “plant-ready” nutrients with TOA, in your fertility plan.
Here’s to your crops’ success!
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 

Wednesday, February 1, 2017

Spring Root-flush



 
Spring Root-flush
Winter dormancy is an important development stage in the tree growth cycle. During this time period crops rest and recharge for the upcoming growing season. Both cold air and soil temperatures are required to supply much needed “chill hours” for resting trees. “Chill hours” are a lot like REM sleep to you and me. REM sleep is the nightly deep-sleep that is vital for keeping us healthy and well rested upon awakening. Simply put, trees need cold temperatures to slow (or stop) their growth activities. When temperatures are too mild, trees do not receive adequate “chill hours” and break dormancy in an energy-deficit condition. In other words, trees don’t sleep well and awaken stressed.
 


 
Spring root-flush:
In California, normally happens with prunus species like almond, early peach, plum, nectarine, apricot and cherry varieties, in the 3rd to 4th week of January. This activity begins when soil temperature (in top 2-4”) reaches 45°F and precedes bloom by approximately three weeks. Buds visibly swell with water and nutrients. The new hair-root growth is needed to support the upcoming crop with water and nutrients. Once root-flush is underway, growers should take advantage by beginning fertigation or soil fertility applications. Nutrient focus should be on root health and crop support.
 
Temperature:
Soil temperature is a major driving factor in the onset of spring rootflush. Currently, soil temperatures, in California are 50-52°F (well above 45°F) due to the high volume of rain (4-5”) that has fallen in the past four to five weeks and continues to saturate much of the state. California has another 4-6” of rain forecast in the next week. Due to this increase in soil temperature, rootflush is now underway.
 
Chill hours:
Another concern is that “chill hours” are below normal for early January and trees are not getting the rest they need. Rootflush is underway and therefore so is root respiration. Respiration is the plant process of “burning up” or releasing stored nutrient energy for plant use. This is a problem because new roots are using up nutrient energy that is meant for the upcoming bloom.  Due to these circumstances, an energy deficit is beginning that cannot be restored from dormant rest. If you enter the bloom stage in an energy deficit (stressed) condition, it will affect the plant’s ability to pollinate, set and “stick” crop. One symptom of bloom stress is “June drop”. Plants self-regulate by aborting excess crop to ensure they do not run short on nutrients. They are programmed to know how much crop load they can support based on their health and availability of nutrition.
 
Feed the Soil:
When short on “chill hours”, the next-best alternative is to supply energy to the plant via “plant-ready” nutrition. Treatment emphasis should be on the soil, since the roots are already at work. Using an orthophosphate source provides much needed “plant-ready” phosphorus for root growth and health. A unique root benefit is a fungicide-like response within the rootzone. This is especially important in waterlogged conditions. Unlike polyphosphate fertilizers, orthophosphate is not temperature dependent. This means it is readily absorbed by new roots in cold soil temperatures (<63-68°F). In addition to feeding the soil, this is also an ideal time to re-inoculate the rhizosphere with soil microbiology. The more diverse your soil microbiology, the better your soil-nutrient and water efficiency you will experience. Dr. William Albrecht said, “We must not forget that microbes are what make a living soil ‘alive’…microbes, eat at the first sitting…Plants eat second. Plants and microbes must be in symbiotic activity and not in competition for fertility if our productive soils are to be maintained.” So, how productive are your soils? As the farmer, it is good stewardship to know and make necessary adjustments to nurture the soil and ensure it is still productive for the next generation.
Here’s to your success!
 


 

 


 
 

 

 

Monday, December 19, 2016


Almond bloom: A very important stage in the life of the crop; one filled with anticipation and trepidation. At this stage, growers work to get pollen (from the Anther; male part) in contact with the Stigma (female part) by various means.

The Science: Almond bloom is beautiful sight to see, but don’t think it is just for our enjoyment.  Almond trees’ primary objective is to propagate the species into the next generation. Blossoms are the “lure” plants use to attract pollinators. At the same time, plants’ physiological activities run at a feverish pace with time, temperature and weather all contending against the plants pollination efforts. The process, while orderly, behaves a lot like a Rube Goldberg device, due to the many intricate, interdependent activities involved. For example: When a pollen grain connects with the stigma, it is considered “pollinated” and starts the Pollination process. Next begins the “fertilization” process: The pollen tube elongates (while the sperm travels along it simultaneously) down the length of the Style to the ovary where it attaches to the ovule allowing the sperm a chance to fertilize the egg and form a Zygote. This process requires a large amount of energy from within each pollen grain. Every pollen grain contains both sperm and tube cells and the health and viability of the pollen is directly related to the nutrition available to the plant. There are many factors which can affect the almond bloom period. These are called “stressors”. Stressors are a problem, because plants must manage them, in addition to normal activities, at each stage of development. Some examples are Environmental (Temperature, precipitation, etc.), Cultural (Nutrition, irrigation, etc.) Biological (fungal, pest pressure, etc.). Without a plan, these can all significantly ill affect your crop’s yield potential. 
 
Practical application: At the start of the bloom stage, there is an internal plant “tug-of-war” between a large volume of plant “dormancy” hormones and the introduction of “reproductive/bloom” hormones.  As the tree awakens, it is thirsty (dehydrated) and hungry (energy deficit) from the dormancy period. Think of it like a grizzly bear awakening from hibernation; the bear’s top priorities are water and food, because much of its reserves were depleted while sleeping. Almond trees are no different. As a grower, you can take an active role in these needs. This is where a fertility plan can benefit you by increasing not only your orchard’s health, but yield and profitability. Let’s take a look at each of the stages of bloom and where your nutrient focus should be and why.
 
Green bud: Flower buds are swollen and green plant tissue is exposed, but no blossoms are yet visible. This is due to hair-root activity which has already been underway for 2 to 3 weeks. Roots are actively foraging for food and water supplies in preparation for the upcoming bloom event. Start fertigation plans now, with nitrogen and “plant-ready” orthophosphate for strong root support.  Application rates should be based on soil texture, to avoid over-applying for the soil’s capacity and plants’ needs. Why orthophosphate? When soil temperatures are under 63-65°F (top 6” of soil), phosphate (P2O5) is still soil-bound (especially in calcareous soil types) and not yet available for feeder roots’ use.  “Plant-ready” orthophosphate (H2PO4- or HPO42-) is not temperature dependent and therefore immediately usable by the roots, in cold soils. After dormancy, the root system and crop set are limited to the amount of stored nutrient energy available. This critical development stage is much like the start of a race and stumbling is not an option. Why take the chance of running short on nutrient supply? It is a Good Management Practice (GMP) and a major benefit to fortify roots and restock the root-system with phosphate, for the high energy demands that bloom puts onto the entire plant system.
 
Pink bud: Without a bud, you can have no bloom. Without bloom, you can have no almonds. Plant energy is vital for a good bloom. At this point, buds have been swelling up, growing rapidly. Nutrient application focus should now shift from fertigation to foliar feeding. While there is not yet a leaf in the field, there are on average, 75,000 to 150,000 blossoms per tree and each is rapidly drawing on stored plant energy reserves, which cannot be supplied via the root system, in cold soil temperatures. Applying “plant-ready” foliar nutrients directly to these plant parts, requires low per acre rates and provides nutrients/energy to supplement the demands of the pollination process. Foliar applications supplement the developing crop while soil temperatures warm and then begin soil-nutrient release for root uptake.
 
Full bloom: This is one of the most effective times to directly increase crop yield potential. When blossom pollination happens it triggers the fertilization stage. This is a time of massive energy demand. When fertilization occurs, almond kernel cell division starts. Under normal conditions, this takes 23 to 27 days to complete. However, it is directly affected by temperature and nutrient availability; warmer than normal temperatures accelerate (shorten) the cell division “window” and cooler than normal temperatures extend this process. Applying “bio-available” nutrients delivers energy and food, at this critical stage of crop development. In simple terms, more cells per kernel equals more weight per kernel at harvest. Remember, this is also a period when the plant is susceptible to infection through the blossoms and steps should be taken to avoid disease flare ups. Applying foliar orthophosphate helps plants build their own defenses for better health and disease resistance.
 
Petal fall: At this point, almond kernel cell division continues to occur at a very rapid rate. Soil temperatures are still cold (<63-65°F) and foliar feeding is an efficient way to supplement plant and crop nutritional needs. Time is of the essence here as the plant will soon begin to shift the growth emphasis from crop-set into canopy-development. Feeding focus should now be on the developing nutlets and canopy. Crop retention is vital to profitability and photosynthesis from a healthy canopy plays a major part from now and until harvest time. Almond trees instinctively know how much crop they can support based upon current stored energy reserves. Remember, a plants primary objective is to perpetuate the species into the next generation and trees will not set more crop than can be matured. When trees run short of energy during bloom, they will begin to self-regulate at Petal-fall stage, by aborting nutlets. This is a time to be very aware of the orchards growth response and be ready to make rapid GMP fertility decisions, as needed. The crop won’t wait for you, so be readiness is crucial!
 
40-45 days Post-Full bloom: Soil temperatures are normally still below 65°F, so you won’t yet be benefitting much from soil-fixed nutrient release. Foliar applications will still be very useful and should focus on boosting canopy health and vigor. Photosynthetic production and efficiency are crucial to get the plant feeding itself as early as possible. If you notice a weakly growing canopy, just after Petal-fall, it can be an early indicator of a heavy crop set (See everything you are looking at!). The tree could be sending extra nutrition to developing nutlets due to positive fertilization activity. Tissue sampling should happen once mature leaves are visible. Use the tissue results as a treatment guide for making fertility decisions. Don’t guess at what your orchard or crop needs.  At this stage, fertility applications are building internal solids (oils) for more kernel weight. Total Soluble Solids (oils) are heavier than water and will not evaporate when you dry down the orchard before shaking. This stage lasts (April 15—June 15) approximately 60 days. Fertility plans should include fertigation and foliar feeding with emphasis on nitrogen, potassium, calcium and traces as needed.
               
Here’s to your crop’s success!

For more information contact me via direct message.

Friday, September 16, 2016

Citrus and Cold, Waterlogged Winter Soil management



Freezing Temperatures in young citrus block.

Winter can be a challenging time for growing citrus. While these conditions can vary from year to year, it pays to be prepared for the worst…just in case.
During extreme temperatures, plants are put under a high stress load and often maturing a crop at the same time. This creates an added level of severity to the plant stress. There are many options for dealing with freezing conditions. Today, let’s concentrate on managing “waterlogged”, cold soils.
As a soil and plant nutritionist, I focus on good, balanced soil and plant nutrition to best equip plants to tend to themselves even during stress events. It takes time to adjust soil nutrient levels when they are imbalanced and time is a limiting factor, when Mother Nature comes calling with freezing temperatures. Soil nutrient levels, especially the Base Saturation cations (K+, Ca++, Mg++, Na+ and H+), should be based upon the soil texture (sand, silt or clay) and adding “more” than what is needed, is not better. This is especially true with calcium and magnesium. Calcium creates pore space and affects the amount of air in the soil. Having surplus amounts of calcium can have a negative impact and actually compete against other needed cations, like potassium and magnesium, by displacing them. Magnesium is equally important, as it affects the soil’s moisture level and like calcium, too much magnesium can create tight-soil conditions that limit water percolation and/or competition with other needed cations. Together, these two need to make up 80% of the total Base Saturation of cations and directly affect your soil-water efficiency and percolation rate. A correct Ca:Mg ratio (i.e. 68% Ca:12% Mg) is important to nutrient efficacy all year round…but especially in times of water saturation and cold soil.
Irrigation water is used to manage cold temperatures and provide affordable protection of a few degrees; it can be the difference between protected and freeze damaged fruit. When this must be done for an extended period of time, the water is applied faster than the plant and/or soil can move it through the soil profile and field saturation occurs. Water saturation creates multiple issues, while cold/freezing air temperatures are present already (stressor); the rootzone is deoxygenated due to irrigation water (stressor), plants are often nutrient deficient due to cold soil temperatures (stressor) and if trees are sprayed with a canopy protectant, respiration is dramatically reduced (stressor). This is a bad mix of stressors, but it happens more often than you might expect.
 
Soil Microbiology - The Missing Link...
Microbiology is foundational to soil health, efficient water usage and nutrient availability/uptake. Applying specific strains of microbiology in the fall, helps prepare the plant and rootzone for wintertime stress events. There are many species and subspecies available, so getting the right type(s) is important.
 
During winter we know certain things to be true:
1.      Phosphate is energy and necessary for plant vitality and to manage stress.
2.      All nutrients, with the exception of nitrogen, move into the plant in phosphate form.
3.      All nutrients, with the exception of nitrogen, are unable to move from the soil/rootzone into the plant until the soil temperature reaches 65 °F.
4.      Nitrogen (nitrate) is a mass-flow mover and susceptible to leaching with heavy amounts of water.
5.      “Waterlogged” soil is depleted of oxygen. Roots cannot grow without oxygen and can actually start to die in 24-48 hours depending on the severity of the conditions.
6.      “Waterlogged” soils stimulate anaerobic microbial activity that feed on the organic matter/humus in the soil and produce methane gas (waste-product), which is highly toxic to roots. This condition will not improve until the rootzone gets air re-introduced into it (oxygenation).
Now, with that in mind, you can see why good, balanced nutrition and nutrient availability is so important. Microbiological activity makes this a reality. Let’s look at how certain groups of microbiology help during cold, wet, winter conditions.
To keep things simple, let’s focus on just two groups that are beneficial in keeping the rootzone active and aerated. Lactobacillus and Yellow soil yeast. Both are proficient at producing high levels of true organic acids (O.A.), right in the rootzone; some of these are citric, acetic, lactic, malic, gluconic, etc. These types of O.A.s are more efficient than humic or fulvic acids as they act much akin to plant enzymes. They are very proficient at “cleaving” fixed nutrients from soil particles and also in keeping them available for later plant use…even during winter. These Organic Acids are not temperature dependent and are exceptional “plant-ready” chelating agents for moving nutrients into plants that would otherwise not be usable until the soil warms. In fact, adding these types of microbes and the O.A.s they produce to your soil will also lessen nitrogen leaching, by conversion into “plant-ready”, non-leachable forms, like proteins and amino acids. In these forms, the nitrogen is stored within the root system for later use, when needed.

In addition to the nutrient chelating plant benefit, the microbiology also increases the oxygen (O2) capacity of the soil through the production of carbon dioxide (CO2). A byproduct of active microbes is CO2 production. Therefore, a benefit of higher microbial population and activity is an increased CO2 level. As CO2 is released, it ascends rapidly to the soil surface and creates tiny pores in the soil. It is much the same, as when you pour a carbonated drink into a glass and the CO2 gases (fizzes) off rapidly. Now imagine the gassing/fizzing action in your soda glass, but from within the rootzone rising up to the soil surface. “Gas exchange” occurs when CO2 reaches the soil surface and releases to the atmosphere. This rapid rising creates a vacuum within the soil pores and, as a result, oxygen is pulled back down into the soil (oxygenation) via the pores to maintain equilibrium.
Another benefit from Lactobacillus is in the production of bacteriocins. Bacteriocins are specialized natural antibiotics and antibiotic-like compounds. They are vital to maintain soil, root and plant health within the rootzone. They are both gram- and gram+ compounds that directly antagonize methanogenesis anaerobes and soil borne pathogens.
In essence, by adding these specific strains of microbiology you are altering the microbial population to your benefit.
Fall soil inoculation will build microbial population and diversity, in time, to combat the cold, wet soil issues of winter for a better soil and crop response.
Adding microbiology is not a substitute for balanced soil nutrition, but it is an important tool in making your existing soil nutrients more efficient and available for plant use.

 
 
 
 
 

 
 

Tuesday, August 23, 2016

Droughts – The Soil As Reasons For Them – Albrecht Papers Vol. 1 - 1954


 
     When one follows the meteorological reports rather regularly since most of us talk about the weather, at least when the radio reports it for us daily, one might well be asking with serious concern, "How come that we keep on breaking flood records, heat records, past records for drought or for extent of long-time rain free periods and other weather records?" Are the meteorological conditions changing for the worse, or are the biological manifestations of weather, labeled as drought, merely intensified and on the increase as reciprocal to some other factor under serious decline through which the same meteorological disturbances are magnified in their detrimental aspects? We have larger floods and we have more severe droughts as the records truly report. But should we not examine these in relation to the soil for possibly more comprehensive explanations of them and our reduction of prevention of the disasters?
 
      When "droughts, unlike rain free periods, may not be defined from standard meteorological observations, since the intensity and the length of the drought depends on genetic characteristics of crops, soil water, soil fertility conditions, and meteorological parameters," [quoting Wayne L. Decker, University of Missouri Climatological Research Project], it will be evident that we need to recognize the soil as a major factor in the disturbances to crops which we call "droughts". These are in reality dry periods extending themselves to lengths of time that bring about crop disaster. The drought then is more a performance measured by damage to crops than by meteorological indexes.
     Drought is then a time period during which there is a serious shortage of water by rainfall for the biological services it usually represents in crop plants. Since the water's services to plants are exercised mainly after the rainwater has entered the soil, then the soil, which is more than merely a water reservoir, may be considered as influencing the effects of the shortage of stored water over an extended rain free period through all of its services to crops beyond that of holding a supply of water. Those many services need to be considered before we use water shortage per se as the alibi for poor crops.
1.       The law of continentality vs. the law of averages
The geographic climatic setting for most of the droughts are the area between the humid and the semi-arid soil regions. These represent mineral-rich soils in general, since the low rainfall has not developed them excessively or removed the calcium, and minerals of similar soil behavior, from the profile and replaced them by hydrogen as acidity. These are the soils where agriculture grows protein rich forages; where soils are windblown and where animals grow more readily on what is apt to be called the prairie and the plains soils.
Droughts are also geographically located in the midst of larger land areas where the effects of what is called "continentality" are more pronounced. This represents the degree to which the weather or the daily meteorological condition varies from the climate, which is the mean or the average of the weather for the longer time period of records considered. The larger the body of land, i.e., the more continental the area, the more the weather or the daily condition will vary from the climate or the average. This is "the law of continentality" in brief. Droughts then may be more commonly what we call "continental" manifestations. They are a variation from the mean and the expected since climate is reported as the mean of much meteorological data. It is in the midcontinent of the United States where droughts may be expected more commonly.
When the average, or mean, of weather records is used to describe the meteorological conditions of a region – Columbia, Missouri, for example, is reported to have an annual rainfall of 29.33 inches. For Springfield, Missouri, the same figure is 41.42 inches. This rainfall figure which is a mean total for the year obtained from records of nearly a half century says nothing about how high or how low the amounts for an single year may be. Because of the continentality of Missouri – its location a thousand miles from any seacoast – we formerly considered that from the previous data, Columbia, Missouri, had a continentality effect of 50%. That says that while the rainfall is reported to be roughly 40 inches, the precipitation might vary over a range of 50%, namely, 25%, or 10 inches, below 40 and 25%, or 10 inches above 40. It might range from a low of 30 inches to a high of 50 inches of precipitation for the different years.
But that figure, once established for continentality, is no longer the fact. That record of continentality was broken in 1953 when, because of the drought of that year, the annual rainfall was but 25.12 in place of 39.33 inches. This annual weather in terms of a rainfall of 25.12 is 36.1% below the mean of 39.33 inches, or that much below the climate. Hence, we may expect excess rain also of 36.1%, a high sometime of 53.54 inches, or a continentality effect of twice 36.1, which is 72.2%. For Springfield, Missouri, the drought of 1953 gave but 25.21 inches of rainfall annually, or a deficiency of 39.1% to suggest a continentality effect there of 78.2%.
If one considers the rainfall for only the summer months - May to September, 1953 inclusive - when the effects of the extended rain free period on vegetation are exaggerated by high temperatures, Columbia, Missouri suffered under a continentality effect amounting to 86%. At the same time, Springfield, Missouri suffered one amounting to 135%. This latter was a most severe disaster to an agricultural area given largely to the dairy phase of that business with so much dependence on grass as the crop. Thus the law of averages applied to Missouri may leave one content with averages, but the law of continentality is truly disturbing but highly revealing when such droughts as 1953 are experienced in record breaking dimensions.

The Missouri Drought of 1953 Emphasized Continentality When the Records of the Weather are put in Contrast to Those of Climate
 
Columbia, Missouri
Springfield, Missouri
Annual rainfall - mean
Annual rainfall - 1953
Annual deficiency - 1953
Continentality effect - 1953
39.33 inches
25.12 inches
36.1%
72.2%
41.42 inches
25.21 inches
39.1%
78.2%
Summer rainfall - mean*
Summer rainfall - 1953
Summer deficiency - 1953
Continentality effect - summer
21.26 inches
11.94 inches
43.0%
86.0%
21.62 inches
7.02 inches
67.5%
135.0%
*May to September, inclusive
 
 

 2.       Droughts are becoming urban - no longer remaining rural

With 85% of our population collected into urban centers, while only 15% are still rural, we would scarcely expect the urban group to appreciate droughts, exhibiting the effects of rain free time largely through the water shortage within the soil bringing crop disasters and livestock troubles. But droughts as water shortage through falling water tables and failing wells are not only rural troubles for thirsty livestock. They are coming to be serious troubles also for urban centers and areas of congested peoples. Where the per capita water consumption per day was formerly a few gallons – a pail full carried from the spring – it is now estimated at 700 gallons per day on a national scale. When this increase per capita is coupled with the increase in population our water consumption since "water pail days" represents an increase of several thousand percent. This supply comes mainly from deep wells. For this the soil is the filtering, clarifying and bacteriacidal agency in most cases which gives us clean, health-supporting water to drink. We have taken water of this kind for granted. We have not seen the soil's services connected therewith. Droughts are making us become water-conscious, not only via disasters to crops as feed and livestock as drink, but also even to the value of water as the major liquid mineral we all drink. When eastern Kansas in 1954, following a rain free period of serious shortage in 1953, had 26 cities critically sort of water, we have reason to become conscious of droughts of larger significance than of such to the rural population only.
3.       Water shortage - a result from excessive erosion and drainage
Our urban centers are coming to see the soils as reasons for droughts in broader meaning of that loosely used term. We realize that we must either limit water consumption per capita, or we must raise the level of the groundwater, i.e., the water table, by getting more water per rainfall to enter the soil. The shortage in soil-stored water is a sequel to soil erosion. As the surface soils become shallower they are less of a blanket to hold larger portions of each rainfall for increased amounts of it to filter or to soak down more deeply into the soil to raise the water table there. Every little rill of erosion is a drainage ditch to hustle the rainfall off just that much more rapidly and to leave that much less to enter the soil for storage there. With erosion, too, the structure of the remaining cultivated surface soil has become less granular and less stable. Less infiltration of water per rain is possible for that reason.
Our excessive drainage, increased more recently by the excessive surface runoff bringing about erosion is now magnifying the shortage of water taken from and given out by the soil. In the mind of the pioneer it was the surplus water and not the water shortage against which he waged a constant struggle. He used drainage ditches, tiles, and all possible means of getting rid of what he considered too much water. We seem to have inherited the pioneer's animosity for water and delight in the extra speedy drainage. Instead we now should encourage more standing water for infiltration because we have too much drainage for sufficient of that.
We have apparently lifted our soils too high out of the water when now nearly every acre is drained. Also when all-weather roads are considered a necessity almost every section of land is encircled by such. Each roadway under concrete cover is allowing no rainwater to enter that much soil. Also by its sloping shoulders and parallel drainage ditches each highway is hustling off to the rivers the rainwater falling upon acres and acres in roadways, while draining also more quickly the arable land adjoining them. When we are bringing about all these changes which reduce the rate and total of water infiltration into the soil while rates of water consumption are increased to lower the supply stored, both in the soil profile for our crops and in the water tables for our livestock and the people of our population, is it mysterious that droughts are getting worse and floods more disastrous? Are these new records other than man-made? Are they coming other than by way of the soil?
We have then been bringing our droughts as they represent shortage of supplies of water upon ourselves. Droughts are disastrous in terms of deficiency of that liquid mineral in the soil and of the food it grows. The more fertile, high protein producing soils are exhibiting the more serious drought disasters. Man is thus pushing himself off the soils which are better for nutrition. He is crowding himself to areas of higher rainfall and to soils giving feeds and foods of high-fattening rather than high-feeding values. He has not noticed that he was moving himself out of quality foods by soil exploitation, since hidden hunger is registering itself all too slowly. But now that he is crowding himself out of drink, that will register more quickly since thirst is more speedily lethal than hunger, droughts take on more meaning. They, too, are moving from the country to the towns and the cities. Droughts register as disasters regardless of whether via humans or via vegetation. Since both routes for troubles of this nature go through the soil, they will finally lead us to the soil as the basis of creation in terms of both drink and food.
4.       Confusion in considering water shortage in the soil but not recognizing fertility shortage there
In seasons of water shortage for our crops, that shortage in the soil has too commonly been mistaken for the shortage of plant nutrition there. When the farmers said, "The drought is bad since the corn is fired for four or five of the lower leaves on the stalk," they were citing a case of the plant's translocating nutrients, especially nitrogen, from the lower, older, nearly spent leaves in order to maintain the upper, younger, and growing leaf parts of the plant. Now that we can apply fertilizer nitrogen along with other nutrient elements, we know that in the confusion and lack of knowledge about plant nutrition we made so much of the drought in many cases where it was not the direct shortage of the water as liquid for the plants, but rather the more common shortage of nitrogen entering into protein and all it represents in crop production.
In this case the soil as shortage of nutrition and not of water was responsible for what was called "drought". With a shallow horizon of surface soil to which the fertility of the entire profile was confined and with an acid, infertile clay horizon beneath it, the drying of that surface layer compelled the roots to go out of the drying horizon originally providing both fertility and water, and into the subsoil where only water but little or no fertility was present. That shallow surface layer was dried, not only as the result of the heat from the sun but also because the roots of the growing crop like corn are estimated to be taking from .15 to .25 of an inch of water by transpiration alone per day (Some folks consider .10 inch of water transpired daily by a corn crop and define a drought for corn as rainfall of less than one inch every ten days. This gives no consideration to the soil concerned.). To miss recognizing the fertility shortage when emphasizing the water shortage in the surface soil during drought is a mental behavior of long standing. In that error of thought we have been blaming the drought via the soil water for a "fired" crop when it was plant starvation via that route from which also insufficient fertility for plant nutrition was coming.
If these fertility conditions cause the lower leaves of the corn stalk to "fire", in the case mistaken for drought, one needs only to note the growing tip of the corn stalk. If water shortage is responsible, then the growing tip of the plant will not commonly be wilted since the roots going deeper into the subsoil are delivering water to maintain the active plant tip without its wilting. It is the wilting of the growing tip of a plant which tells us when water is needed, a question to which most any housewife knows the answer who cares for her house plants. Droughts may often be a case of infertility of the soil, or one of imbalanced plant nutrition apt to be mistaken for shortages of rainfall and for bad weather.
5.       Plants spend most soil water to keep leaf tissue moist for gaseous interchange with the atmosphere - this loss represents cooling effects
Should we clarify some other confusions connected with the properties of water and its biochemical services to plants, animals, and man, we may simultaneously clarify more effectively our understanding of the soil's significance under what we call "droughts". In connection with our own body comfort during times of higher temperatures and longer rain free periods, we appreciate the help by speedy evaporation of water from our own skin as a means of keeping us cool. It is a fortunate property of water that a tremendous amount of heat is taken up when water changes from its liquid form to a gas, or when it vaporizes. We can use melting ice to cool ourselves since about 85 calories of heat are taken up in melting one gram of solid water as ice into the liquid form at the same temperature. But nature has been more efficient in using vaporization of water from our skin as a means of offsetting high temperatures or heat, since about 585 calories of heat are taken up when one gram of water is vaporized from the skin, or in the breath as discharged in the form of water vapor from the lungs.
This property of water, namely, its high heat of vaporization, holds down, and to a considered regularity, the temperatures of small bodies of land surrounded by water. It offsets the effect of continentality as illustrated when Great Britain has a continentality of but 10%, or the Hawaiian Islands have almost none. Vaporization from the surrounding water mass spends the sun's heat which would otherwise raise the atmospheric temperature over the adjoining land were the air from there not exchanged by air from over the
water. Soil water vaporizing from the soil's surface is then a cooling agent of the soil and the air above it. So is the water vaporizing from the plant's leaf surfaces. Trees bringing up water stored much deeper in the soil to be vaporized from the tree's leaf surface are a means of spending the heat from the sun and thereby of cooling the atmosphere. Clearing areas of forests has done much in bringing about wider fluctuation in temperatures, first because trees are helpful in getting rainfall into the soil for increased storage and less sudden fluctuation in soil temperature and moisture, and second, in lessened fluctuations in atmospheric temperatures within considerable heights from the soil because of their transpiration or vaporization of water from within their leaves. As crops grow taller they ameliorate for themselves the effects of variations in heat from the sun by means of the water evaporated through them from the soil (A medium sized hardwood tree may lose 50 gallons of water through its foliage in a day, reports William B. Love, Michigan State College Specialist in municipal forestry.).
The water of transpiration from the plant's leaves demonstrates another of its vital biochemical properties, namely, its services as a solvent of gases as well as of salts for their ionization. Water is lost from the leaf of a plant because the inner, moist tissue of the leaf is exposed to the atmosphere for the exchange of the gases. Those gases are mainly carbon dioxide and oxygen. That inner leaf surface must be kept moist since gases will not exchange through a dry one for help to the plants in taking in carbon dioxide for photosynthesis or oxygen for respiration. Plants lose water by transpiration according to the meteorological conditions vaporizing that water from the leaf surface much as water from any moist surface. The stomates of the leaf, through which gases exchange, may be partially but not completely closed for a living plant. The plant leaves may roll themselves for reduction in transpiration before they wilt. But moist leaf tissue exposed for exchange of the gases must be losing water to the atmosphere, or plants must be transpiring, if respiration and photosynthesis are to continue to keep the plant alive under most common conditions of the water. Only an atmosphere of humidity at 100% or one completely saturated, eliminates transpiration. In nature, this condition does not occur often.
6.       Plant's transpiration ratio is not an index of efficiency of use of water: soil as plant nutrition determines that
It was the classic work of L.J. Briggs and H.L. Shantz [Relative Water Requirements of Plants, Journal of Agricultural Research 3:1, 1914] that measured the water of transpiration of crops in relation to the amount of dry weight in plant tissue resulting as growth. The same soil was used for the many different crops under experiment. At that time, and by many folk today, it was believed that the kind of crop determines this relation and little significance was given the soil as control of it. Their work gave us many "transpiration ratios" apt to be called "water requirements" of different crops. These values are the pounds of water transpired to the air by the plant taking it from the soil to produce a pound of the crop's vegetative dry weight.
Unfortunately, crops have been classified by means of these values into different "efficiencies with which they use water from the soil to give us yields of crop," i.e., only vegetative bulk. "What difference is there in the quality of crop yield per pound of dry matter produced?" was not the question raised even when the transpiration ratios were widely different and the final figures were an average of them over wide ranges. Photosynthesis by the sorghum and sugar cane piling up rapidly their photosynthetic products, namely, sugars and starches as energy food for the plant, was emphasized. Biosynthesis, the production of the compounds like proteins which takes place without the direct service of light and uses some of the sugars and starches for starting compounds and for energy sources or fuel for the synthetic processes, was not considered. The ratio of the pounds of water transpired to the pounds of complete protein produced would have put this thinking on a truly nutritional basis. It would let us see water of transpiration used highly efficiently by alfalfa making a pound of very good protein per 8,000 pounds of water transpired. This is high efficiency in contrast to sorghum, making a pound of incomplete, or very crude, protein per 10,000 pounds of water of transpiration. Alfalfa, a quality feed producer, is more efficient in using water for this purpose than is sorghum.
But the crop specialists interested only in vegetative mass as a service by transpired water, remind us that sorghum uses water at a rate of 275 pounds per pound of dry matter grown, while alfalfa transpires 850. In his mind, which has not yet envisioned nutritional services by crops grown but clings to the criterion of vegetative mass produced per acre as the criterion of crop yield, the sorghum surpasses the alfalfa as the crop for droughty areas or those of lower rainfall. According to these folks using such simple transpiration ratios as their judgement of the crop's efficiencies in using water, low rainfall areas would call for growing bulky crops that starve our animals and ourselves rather than call for making the soils fertile in those low rainfall areas to use that water more efficiently for the creation of real nutritional values. Speculation in agricultural crops on the level of simple arithmetical thinking is more universal than is the creation of real food value demanding our thinking in terms of the science of physiology and all the other forms of organized knowledge undergirding growth, protection and reproduction by the life forms that live to feed us.
Any crop uses water inefficiently for the possible biosynthetic services when the fertility supply in the soil represents an imbalance for the support of the physiological processes required for the maximum of nutrition of that crop. In that nutrition of the crop, any one element in low supply in the soil may cause inefficient synthesis, while the stream of water loss as transpiration runs on just the same. Elements like calcium, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus and others held in place are soil fertilizers. Nitrogen, so mobile and not so held, is the crop fertilizer. Thus the confusion in this regard occasions inefficient use of the transpiration stream under nature's control, because we fail to keep the supply of nutrients in the soil up to the high level, and in the proper ratio, for the biosynthetic processes of the crop functioning at high efficiency in giving us nutritional values in itself as our food.
The transpiration stream flows according to the meteorological conditions favoring evaporation of water balanced against the soil's conditions representing forces holding the water as a thinner film around the soil particles. The plant and its open, internally exposed wet cells in the leaves are atmospherically exposed water surfaced connecting themselves through the plant and its roots contact with the water film around the soil particles. According as that soil has less water and the film is thinner, the water is held there more firmly against liquid and gaseous transfers of it to the atmosphere via the plant which is the equilibrator of the atmosphere's taking water by evaporation from the leaves and the soil's holding it by surface adsorption. The poor plant is merely the innocent equal sign between the two opposing forces. Even though the plant's leaves may roll, and stomates may nearly close, they must still permit carbon dioxide to enter and escape, and oxygen to do likewise for the continued respiration if the plant remains alive. It’s wet, living tissue exposed cannot prevent the water loss any more than you can live and prevent the moisture loss in your breath by stopping your breathing. Plants lose water under variable weather according to the soil and meteorological conditions and not according to the plant species or plant pedigree.
7.       Transpiration stream of water from soil to plant vs. nutrient movement along that route
The transpiration stream of water moving from the soil through the plant to the air obeys the meteorological conditions of the atmosphere controlling it. The nutrient elements move from the surface of the colloidal clay holding them to the colloidal surface of the root according to the energy changes required to bring that transfer about. This chemo-dynamic performance of nutrient activity follows its set of laws and conditions, including the presence of water but not the movement of the water. The nutrient, inorganic elements within the soil, like the fish in the stream, are not victims of the current. They move with or against it according to forces controlling them.
Experiments using colloidal clay to measure more accurately the soil's stock and changes in the nutrient cations have demonstrated that nutrient ions could go from the plant back into the soil while the plant was increasing its mass by growth and was having a normal transpiration stream of water flowing from the soil to the atmosphere. As a second case, using the seed planted into moist sand, for example, growth occurred with the transpiration stream moving water out of the sterile sand but no fertility elements from there. It was an empty transpiration stream then so far as nutrients hauled in by it are concerned, but it was nevertheless a flow of water. It was a moistener of the leaf tissue only for exchange of gases there which is the normal function of transpiration.
In the desert where the soil is so dry, to cite a third case, the moisture condensing on the plants at night is enough to moisten the soil around the plant's roots by reversing the stream of transpiration. But this does not necessarily reverse the plants movement of fertility, which continues to go from the soil into the plants. Desert plants take fertility regularly even if the transpiration stream should be a diurnal reversal of its current. As another good case, one can demonstrate plant growth and nutrient movement into the root from the soil when the transpiration stream is not flowing. One can demonstrate growth by putting a potted plant under a glass bell jar into an atmosphere laden with moisture and carbon dioxide with a humidity of 100% and no transpiration. Given plenty of carbon dioxide and sunlight, we can have both plant growth and nutrient movement from the soil even when the transpiration stream is at a standstill. These four cases are the evidence that the transpiration stream is one activity, while the movement of the nutrients is another quite independent of it.
Our failure to study the plant nutrition within the soil, and our contentment with complaints about droughts, have left us growing bulk of plants rather than nutritional values in our agricultural crops. Water has been the great alibi. We have believed the plant concerned only about its drink. We have simply not seen the soil and the plant's concern about something that is truly plant nourishment for biosynthesis by it of proteins and higher food values. We have simply not diagnosed each specific case. We have been content with propagandized practices by the majority of prescribers. We have been running within the pack of humans in place of smelling out the trails of the things of nature.
8.       Drought, excess of temperature as well as the deficit of soil water
When the absence of water for its services in vaporization from the soil and the vegetation as a cooling effect allows the temperature of the air to rise high, shall we not expect the plant's processes of life, centered in the proteins, to be disturbed by the increased heat? Those processes are doubled in their rate of activities for every 10°C. increase in temperature according to the Vant Hoff Law, until the protein itself may be destroyed by it. We may well expect many life processes to be interrupted long before the protein is coagulated or changes are visible. Eggs incubated near 100°F. give a hatched chick, but if they are held at a few degrees higher than that for even a short period of time, the physiological processes are so disturbed that the normal hatch of the healthy chicks does not result. The protein of the egg need not be coagulated or even coddled to upset the process. Life processes in the plant come under the same category as those within the egg. They deal with proteins within the plant cell. They are concerned also with enzymes which encourage the processes. These delicate catalytic combinations resembling the proteins in many instances, fit into the same pattern of temperature requirements for regular, normal life processes. Low rainfall and accompanying irregular temperatures, then resulting in a drought may be effects of the heat wave as well as of the shortage of the water.
In the ecological pattern of plants distributed over the world starch production and its storage in the seed occur under limited temperature ranges at certain physiological stages in the plant's growth period. Corn grows for example in the temperate zone for high starch output in the crop and at certain months within the year. Other seeds of high starch delivery are seasonally located similarly. For starch producing crops in the tropical zone those seem to be given to storage of this compound in the roots or underground at lower temperatures. Seeds there seem to store their reserve energy supplies as oil. Shall we not visualize the plant injury, during a drought with the dry surface soil going to the higher temperatures, as an effect of the excessive heat changing the physiology of the plant rather than the effect of only a storage of water or this liquid nutrient?
Among the other plant manifestations suggesting effects of drought by high temperatures rather than by water shortage, there is the common change in a bluegrass lawn to one of crab grass or other species, for example, when the lawn owners persist in keeping their lawns watered during the hot summer months. Where the lawn is dried and the bluegrass has disappeared in going dormant, this same grass species comes back with the break in the drought, namely, with the rain again and the lowered temperatures. Such is not the case of the watered lawn, shifted by that watering treatment during the heat to a crab grass flora. That flora persists and excludes the bluegrass during the rest of the season. A Bermuda grass lawn is undisturbed by the drought which displaces the bluegrass. Bermuda grass stays green during both the temperature and water shortage.
Observations on Sanborn Field, Columbia, Missouri, under experimental soil studies since 1888, suggest that corn plants at a low level of physiological activity because of low soil fertility were not visibly injured by either the water shortage or the heat wave of the drought. But as more fertility, including nitrogen, raised the levels and diversities of the plant's activities, the drought damage became more severe. But this suggests itself as the result of the high temperature damaging the plant parts commonly rich in nitrogen and most active in tissue growth. The injury occurred in plant leaf parts where damages from nitrogen deficiencies are commonly observed, but the appearance of the plant parts injured was decidedly different than that exhibited under starvation of nitrogen. This suggest the simple fact that vegetation doing little but the elaboration of cellulosic mass is not subject to drought injury, but plants elaborating compounds of much nutritional value for animals are injured by the heat wave of the drought as well as by the soil's shortage of water.
As another biological illustration of the drought, let us recall that the races of pheasants introduced into the United States came from a range of conditions quite unlike for example those in Missouri in which state the introduction of this game bird have not been so successful. These birds lay their eggs and incubate them too late in the season, or when the high temperatures we experience in the early summer have an adverse effect on the hatch. With the clutch of eggs on the ground, the soil temperatures rise too high and injure the incubating processes guaranteeing a good hatch. For this biological process, the "drought" damage results from the heat wave and not from the deficit of water as drink.
As still biological demonstration of the heat wave aspect of the drought of 1954, a hatchery reported the death of many chicks, and of more mature chickens and turkeys on its poultry farm during the high temperatures accompanying it. Likewise in some of our experiments using rabbits for biological assay of the differences in grains and forages resulting from soil treatments with different trace elements, the first heat wave in late June and early July took over 70% of the rabbits in one set of the feed arrangements while it took none of another set. All the animals of these two sets were in the same room and temperatures. This mounting of the fatalities of the one set was gradual and persistent as the drought continued and the temperatures mounted in killing even the replenishment of the dying stock from the adjoining surviving stock moved to the fatal feed. When the high percentage of fatality on this dried feed had been reached with eight deaths in one day of record heat, the assay was terminated with a shift in ration emphasizing dried milk proteins. This shift prohibited any further fatalities and stopped the disastrous effects by the heat wave on these animals when considerable publicity of animal death by drought was common.
A repeat trial on the effects by the high temperatures on the rabbits, according to the original ration increased to a grain mixture, duplicated the previous results. This trial was carried on for only three weeks or until only 31% of fatalities resulted during the succeeding heat wave. Here the deaths suggest themselves as due to the high temperatures, but only when the poor nutrition suggests itself as the route through which the high temperatures worked their damage. It also casts reflection on the quality of the feed offered the public by some hatcheries along with their baby chicks.
9.       Superficial postmortems of crop failures blame the weather; accurate diagnoses point to the soil as help to avert them
It is only slowly that the factors in the agricultural production of our feeds and foods are being tabulated and evaluated. For too long a time has weather, especially rainfall as the supply of water for plant growth, been the alibi for irregularities in crop yields. "Drought" as a term including rain free periods of extended time has now broken all past records and become a national disaster. As such it deserves analysis of the problems it presents. Such analysis establishes the soil as a major factor in determining the severity of the disturbances to the plant's growth and reproductive processes by the water shortage and the high temperatures through which the plant is injured under the composite of conditions included in that term.
More soil knowledge through research progress has now pointed to a better understanding of the facts about soil water and the aspects through which some of the injuries by drought can be mitigated. The fertility of the soil as plant nutrition is decidedly significant in that respect. Now that we are separating the nutrition of the plant by the soil from the storage of water in it for the plant, the drought as water shortage is no longer so much of an alibi. Rather drought is more a damage by deficient plant nutrition. In soil management, which may include irrigation, the economy and sound service to plant production demand that the supplying of the soil fertility should be the first concern and the addition of water the second.
Analyses of the problems of drought establish the fact that excessively high temperatures per se as disturbers of the physiological functions of the plants, and even of animals, are factors perhaps more lethal than the water shortage. Even when the high temperature is segregated as a factor of damage, it is significant that this is increased by imbalanced nutrition, or conversely, improved by proper nutrition.
Thus the problem of drought damage moves itself into the lap of agriculture as a problem either to be solved – at least in part – or tolerated with reduced disaster, via the management of the soil for better nutrition of the plant and the animals fed by means of it. In the case of what we call "drought" we need to view them for possible prevention or reduction of damage via the wiser management of the soils under them.
-          Excerpted from The Albrecht Papers – Vol. 1; 1954; [emphasis added].

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